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- Subject: 90-5551 -- CONCUR, SCHAD v. ARIZONA
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- SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES
-
-
- No. 90-5551
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-
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- EDWARD HAROLD SCHAD, Jr., PETITIONER
- v. ARIZONA
-
-
- on writ of certiorari to the supreme court of arizona
-
- [June 21, 1991]
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-
- Justice Scalia, concurring in part and concurring in the judgment.
- The crime for which a jury in Yavapai County, Arizona, convicted Edward
- Harold Schad in 1985 has existed in the Anglo-American legal system,
- largely unchanged, since at least the early 16th century, see 3 J. Stephen,
- A History of the Criminal Law of England 45 (1883); R. Moreland, Law of
- Homicide 9-10 (1952). The common-law crime of murder was the unlawful
- killing of a human being by a person with "malice aforethought" or "malice
- prepense," which consisted of an intention to kill or grievously injure,
- knowledge that an act or omission would probably cause death or grievous
- injury, an intention to commit a felony, or an intention to resist lawful
- arrest. Stephen, supra, at 22; see also 4 W. Blackstone, Commentaries
- 198-201 (1769); 1 M. Hale, Pleas of the Crown 451-466 (1st Am. ed. 1847).
- The common law recognized no degrees of murder; all unlawful killing
- with malice aforethought received the same punishment -- death. See F.
- Wharton, Law of Homicide 147 (3d ed. 1907); Moreland, supra, at 199. The
- rigor of this rule led to widespread dissatisfaction in this country. See
- McGautha v. California, 402 U. S. 183, 198 (1971). In 1794, Pennsylvania
- divided common-law murder into two offenses, defining the crimes thus:
-
-
- "[A]ll murder which shall be perpetrated by means of poison, or lying in
- wait, or by any other kind of willful, deliberate, or premeditated killing;
- or which shall be committed in the perpetration, or attempt to perpetrate
- any arson, rape, robbery, or burglary, shall be deemed murder of the first
- degree; and all other kinds of murder shall be deemed murder in the second
- degree." 1794 Pa. Laws, ch. 1766, MDRV 2.
-
-
- That statute was widely copied, and down to the present time the United
- States and most States have a single crime of first-degree murder that can
- be committed by killing in the course of a robbery as well as premeditated
- killing. See, e. g., 18 U. S. C. MDRV 1111; Cal. Penal Code Ann. MDRV 189
- (West 1988 and Supp. 1991); Kan. Stat. Ann. MDRV 21.3401 (Supp. 1990);
- Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. MDRV 750.316 (1991); Neb. Rev. Stat. MDRV 28-303
- (1989). {1} It is Arizona's variant of the 1794 Pennsylvania statute under
- which Schad was convicted in 1985 and which he challenges today.
- Schad and the dissenting Justices would in effect have us abolish the
- crime of first-degree murder and declare that the Due Process Clause of the
- Fourteenth Amendment requires the subdivision of that crime into (at least)
- premeditated murder and felony murder. The plurality rejects that course
- -- correctly, but not in my view for the correct reason.
- As the plurality observes, it has long been the general rule that when
- a single crime can be committed in various ways, jurors need not agree upon
- the mode of commission. See, e. g., People v. Sullivan, 173 N. Y. 122, 65
- N. E. 989 (1903); cf. H. Joyce, Indictments 15 561-562, pp. 654-657 (2d ed.
- 1924); W. Clark, Criminal Procedure 15 99-103, pp. 322-330 (2d. ed. 1918);
- 1 J. Bishop, Criminal Procedure 15 434-438, pp. 261-265 (2d. ed. 1872).
- That rule is not only constitutional, it is probably indispensable in a
- system that requires a unanimous jury verdict to convict. When a woman's
- charred body has been found in a burned house, and there is ample evidence
- that the defendant set out to kill her, it would be absurd to set him free
- because six jurors believe he strangled her to death (and caused the fire
- accidentally in his hasty escape), while six others believe he left her
- unconscious and set the fire to kill her. While that seems perfectly
- obvious, it is also true, as the plurality points out, see ante, at 7, that
- one can conceive of novel "umbrella" crimes (a felony consisting of either
- robbery or failure to file a tax return) where permitting a 6-6 verdict
- would seem contrary to due process.
- The issue before us is whether the present crime falls into the former
- or the latter category. The plurality makes heavy weather of this issue,
- because it starts from the proposition that "neither the antiquity of a
- practice nor the fact of steadfast legislative and judicial adherence to it
- through the centuries insulates it from constitutional attack," ante, at 15
- (internal quotations omitted). That is true enough with respect to some
- constitutional attacks, but not, in my view, with respect to attacks under
- either the procedural component, see Pacific Mutual Life Insurance Co. v.
- Haslip, 499 U. S. ---, --- (1991) (slip op., at 15) (Scalia, J., concurring
- in judgment), or the so-called "substantive" component, see Michael H. v.
- Gerald D., 491 U. S. 110, 121-130 (1989) (plurality opinion), of the Due
- Process Clause. It is precisely the historical practices that define what
- is "due." "Fundamental fairness" analysis may appropriately be applied to
- departures from traditional American conceptions of due process; but when
- judges test their individual notions of "fairness" against an American
- tradition that is deep and broad and continuing, it is not the tradition
- that is on trial, but the judges.
- And that is the case here. Submitting killing in the course of a
- robbery and premeditated killing to the jury under a single charge is not
- some novel composite that can be subjected to the indignity of "fundamental
- fairness" review. It was the norm when this country was founded, was the
- norm when the Fourteenth Amendment was adopted in 1868, and remains the
- norm today. Unless we are here to invent a Constitution rather than
- enforce one, it is impossible that a practice as old as the common law and
- still in existence in the vast majority of States does not provide that
- process which is "due."
- If I did not believe that, I might well be with the dissenters in this
- case. Certainly the plurality provides no satisfactory explanation of why
- (apart from the endorsement of history) it is permissible to combine in one
- count killing in the course of robbery and killing by premeditation. The
- only point it makes is that the depravity of mind required for the two may
- be considered morally equivalent. Ante, at 17-19. But the petitioner here
- does not complain about lack of moral equivalence: he complains that, as
- far as we know, only six jurors believed he was participating in a robbery,
- and only six believed he intended to kill. Perhaps moral equivalence is a
- necessary condition for allowing such a verdict to stand, but surely the
- plurality does not pretend that it is sufficient. (We would not permit,
- for example, an indictment charging that the defendant assaulted either X
- on Tuesday or Y on Wednesday, despite the "moral equivalence" of those two
- acts.) Thus, the plurality approves the Arizona practice in the present
- case because it meets one of the conditions for constitutional validity.
- It does not say what the other conditions are, or why the Arizona practice
- meets them. With respect, I do not think this delivers the "critical
- examination," ante, at 17, which the plurality promises as a substitute for
- reliance upon historical practice. In fact, I think its analysis
- ultimately relies upon nothing but historical practice (whence does it
- derive even the "moral equivalence" requirement?) -- but to acknowledge
- that reality would be to acknowledge a rational limitation upon our power,
- which bob-tailed "critical examination" obviously is not. "Th[e]
- requirement of [due process] is met if the trial is had according to the
- settled course of judicial proceedings. Due process of law is process due
- according to the law of the land." Walker v. Sauvinet, 92 U. S. 90, 93
- (1876) (citation omitted).
- With respect to the second claim asserted by petitioner, I agree with
- Justice Souter's analysis, and join Part III of his opinion. For these
- reasons, I would affirm the judgment of the Supreme Court of Arizona.
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- Still other States never established degrees of murder, and retain a
- single crime of "murder" that encompasses both premeditated killing and
- killing in the course of a robbery. See, e. g., S. C. Code MDRV 16-3-10
- (1985).
-